“Carnival Monday, at three o’clock at night in the courtyard of the Palazzo Maggiore, which was covered with cloths about the facades and windows, surrounded all around with seats and galleries, in which stood the gentlewomen, the gentlemen, and others to see the sesta—a tournament began.”
—Vizzani; A History of Bologna Volume II
Introduction
It’s Carnival! One last hoorah of unrepentant hedonism before Lent! In Bologna, as in much of the Catholic world today, Carnival was, and still is a big deal, but what did Carnival look like in the Renaissance? Where did it come from, and was it on the scale and pageantry of modern incarnations—was it as raucous as modern celebrations, and perhaps more importantly, have we been able to identify a martial component to these festivities?
—Let’s be real, this is the Art of Arms, you know the answer to the that last one.
First up, the name Carnival comes from a conjugation of the Latin, Carnem Levare (farewell to meat).
Carnival has it’s roots in the pagan festivals of Saturnalia, Isidis Navigium and Bacchanalia. The later of which, Bacchanalia (the Latin derivative of the Greek Dionysian celebrations popular in Greece) was a three day celebration that featured copious drinking, dramatic performances, and orgies—the resurrection of Dionysus every spring, was a time for celebrating wine, fertility, and life; in honor of the god’s triumphant rebirth.1 The sub celebration of Anthesteria, a three day festival dedicated to gluttonous consumption of food and alcohol—mostly alcohol, is probably the precursor to the modern day celebration of Fat Tuesday or Mardis Gras (Shrove Tuesday).2 The Saturnalia festival, an offshoot of the Greek Kronia festival, was a celebration of the winter sowing season and the promise of spring that started on December 17th and lasted into the first weeks of January. It’s festivals in Rome featured large figurines and caricatures paraded through the streets, a mock king elected as Saturnalicius princeps, a temporary bar on the constraints of social strata, and the liberation from moral obligation that we’ve come to associate with Carnival today.3
From the rise of the Roman Catholic Church into the Medieval world, these festivals remained in the public consciousness, but went underground where they developed a stigma for debauchery and sinfulness.4 That was, until 1094 AD, when Doge Vitale Failer, was coerced into granting a period of public entertainment in the city of Venice, which allowed some of the traditions to begin to creep back into the communal celebrations held about the maritime city.5 Then, almost a century later, after the defeat of the Patriarch of Aquileia, Ulrich II von Treven, in 1162, by Doge Vitale II Michiel, the Venetian festivities took on a new—formalized yet unrestrained reinvention of the old pagan traditions, as thumb in the eye of the oppressive ecclesiastical regime and the chaos consuming the church.6
Here’s some context. The Patriarchate of Aquileia was an ecclesiastical province in northern Italy, with a powerbase in the city of Aquileia, that claimed jurisdiction over Venice. After Frederick I Barbarosa (Red Beard or Rotbart) was elected Holy Roman Emperor in March of 11527 and was given the Iron Crown of Italy in April of 11558, he decided to mossy across the Alps to get his official blessing from the Pope, but when he failed to hold then-Pope Adrian IV’s stirrup, the pernicious Papa declined to give ol’Rotbart the smooch of peace {Gasp}.9 This led to some heightened tensions, but Fredrick eventually made amends and was given Charlemagne’s crown on 18 June, 1155.10 Though, tensions still remained.
After some nasty internet—err, letter drama between Adrian and Frederick, where the Holy Vicar implied the crown of the emperor was a gift, and not a title with powers or obligations, Rotbart decided he was going to ask the pope to repeat that statement in person, and brought his army to Italy to make sure he didn’t get Pope slapped.11 This led to the Diet of Roncaglia, where four jurists from the Università di Bologna deliberated over the matter and decided that the emperors right to rule was granted by God, divine right, and gave him the power to define taxes, tolls and exactions on trade.12 {For those of you just along for the ride, this would define European politics for the next half millennia.}
Then Adrian IV kicked-the-can in 1159, and two popes popped up in his stead, Alexander III and Victor IV.13 Fredrick backed Victor, who decided to stick close to the emperors powerbase in northern Italy, while Alexander found friends and allies in Norman Naples and Sicily.14 Earlier we mentioned Ulrich II, this is where his Patriarchness comes in to play. With Imperial expansion in northern Italy, Ulrich tried to take advantage of the situation, and staged a campaign to bring the annoyingly independent Venetians under the heel of the emperor.15 He captured the city of Grado from Venice, but the Venetians, under Vitale II Michiel, struck back with a massive fleet that recaptured the city, nabbed Ulrich, and destroyed a bunch of castles in Firuli to make sure their message of defiance was heard loud and clear in Achen.16
After the victory, the Venetians negotiated a settlement with the emperor, and got a grant confirming the autonomy they’d so long desired, to which they ransomed Ulrich and his 700 men for one bull and twelve pigs to be paid annually—a price the Patriach was happy to pay.17 To celebrate, the people of Venice took to the streets and partied like it was 589 AD. From that point forward, starting on the day after Christmas to the day before Lent, the Venetians lived by the moto, “once a year, it is acceptable to have no brakes or restraints.” Variations of the characteristic pagan celebrations evolved into long standing traditions, like wearing masks to hide your face and thereby your place within the social hierarchy, as in the celebratory rite of Navigium Isidis18, plays, dramas, satire, trickery, debauchery, and drunkeness; the Carnival we know and love. In 1296, the Serenissima by official decree, made Fat Tuesday or Shorve a public holiday—cementing the celebration as a staple of Venetian culture.19
The Bolognese Carnival of 1562
In his History of Bologna, Volume 2, Vizzani gives us a fascinating account of one Carnival in particular, the Carnival of 1562. It’s worth noting that he says nothing worthy of historical account happened that year in Bologna, and therefore the pageantry and jest of this particular Carnival was the most significant thing to take place in the city of towers. {I think we all long for a year where the most significant happening in our collective world, no matter how big or small, was a kick-ass party.}
The festivities kicked off on a Sunday with a joust—no, various jousts, performed in the quintana style. The quintana was an event which started in the mid 15th century, where knights would gallop along a track in the shape of a figure eight, and joust for rings that were hanging from a dummy-soldier in the middle of the field, the whole affair was modeled after a late Medieval or Renaissance understanding of Roman military, lance training.20 The prize for this particular competition was garment made of rich crimson velvet, a sword, a dagger, and a golden belt, all provided by the Anziani. The winner of the quintana was Pirro Malvezzi, whom a later 1588 publication of Viggiani would be dedicated to, by Zacharia Cavalcabo (We will see Ercole Ghisilieri as well, completing our trinity of late 16th to early 17th century fencing families—the Vizzani tradition).21 Expect more on the life of Pirro Malvezzi in future articles!
While we’re on the subject of fencing masters, do any of the Bolognese masters talk about fencing for rings? Can we turn this back to the martial space?
—I’m so glad you asked! Yes they do, check out this excerpt from Giovanni dall’Agocchie, from Jarek Swanger’s publication of Dell'Arte di Scrima Libri Tre.
Gio. I’ll do everything in my power to recall to my memory all the observations and advice that must be employed in the art of the joust, so that you may be as satisfied by me as I can make you. So question me at your pleasure, and interrupt me whenever you wish, so that I can always reply to you with a glad spirit.
Lep. Since you permit me to ask you, I’d like you to explain to me the reason why the ring wasn’t placed reasonably.
[58verso] Gio. Didn’t you see how low it was? And positioned almost in the middle of the course?
Lep. I saw it, although I thought that it was fine like that, since I’ve seen it positioned that way in many other places.
Gio. I believe you, but those who positioned it like that didn’t have knowledge of jousting, because if they had, then they would have placed it reasonably.
Lep. How should it be placed in order to be reasonable?
{How the ring must be placed when jousting.}
Gio. Outside the course, at least three feet of measure toward the left side of the one who is tilting, because just as the adversary always approaches on a rider’s left side when jousting in the encounter, so should the ring be placed on the same side as well, if one wants it to be placed reasonably. Regarding the height, it should be six feet of measure above the ground {Note: this matches Vizzani’s description of the target being the height of a dummy or enemy soldier}, as it’s a more reasonable and beautiful thing to accustom oneself to tilt with the lance high than low, because coming to tilt, either on the course or the open field, one will be able to strike the head more surely and with greater ease, this being the most notable blow that one may face.
Lep. I understand, but tell me the reason why tilting at the ring like so was invented.
Gio. It was invented in order to make it entertaining, and encourage youths who are still learning to tilt with the lance, as this is the easiest way that’s employed.
Lep. Yet it seems difficult to me to get it in that ring.
Gio. It’s true that it’s difficult, but it doesn’t consist so much of getting it in the ring as much as it does in seeing a rider carry his lance well, and tilting it reasonably. (Swanger, pg. 66):
A young Giovanni dall’Agocchie could’ve very well been in the stands watching this particular quintana, who knows. After the joust was over, and Pirro was crowned the victor, and graciously gave the beautiful sword he’d won to his brother Ercole.
The night marched on with general revelry, indulgence, and merrymaking characteristic of Carnival. That was, until 3 in the morning, when our story picks up with the quote that kicked off this article. A tournament began. Three costumed knights, dressed as famed antiquarian characters; Clitomachus (Carthaginian philosopher), Telephanes (Famed Persian Artist), and Dimarcus (Famed Olympian and Boxer) had traveled to Bologna as knights of Soria, because they’d heard that many a valiant and worthy knight was there.
They offered a challenge, fighting on foot and on horseback, a passage of arms against any challenger who could claim a lady more beautiful, wise or courteous, than their famed sisters Callianira, Sofonisba, and Annotea of Damascus. The issue was thus, they would hang three shields in the Palazzo Maggiore denoting the three aforementioned virtues of their ladies, and would be prepared to oppose any knight who dared touch those shields. The abbattimenti, would take place on February 9th, and the challenger would have to complete one pass with the lance, one with the mace, and five with the Stocco (Estoc).
Amidst the demonstration, one Lelia of Bologna so moved by the challenge posted by the knights of Soria, and wanting for her husband, Cavalier Ferrando to defend her beauty, virtue and courtesy, left the city out of zeal and honor to hire a Necromancer who could summon her lover from whatever strange country he was fighting in. Her frenzied dash across the Piazza to mock her flight through the contado, was quite the spectacle. Until she happened upon the mysterious and dark Necromancer {a hush fell over the crowd}. He promised her that he could meet her in the place where the abbatimento was to be held at the moment of combat, and would make her Cavalier Ferrando appear armed on horseback to fight the dreaded knights of Soria.
When dawn broke on Monday the 9th, a new letter, from one Menalippe Amazona, champion of Ares, appeared beside that of the one posted by the Knights of Soria. It said, “Having heard from Martesia Queen of the Amazons the proposal of the three knights of Soria, I regret that under the pretext of wanting to honor their women, that they had pre-emptied the tarnish of all others, and therefore had given the responsibility to him, Menalippe, to go and visit them, and to maintain, that in other parts of the world there are women of beauty, courtesy, and value equal to their exemplary ladies. He would, therefore, appear on the field at the appointed time to prove his worth.”
When the hour of the abbattimenti arrived, the maintainers representing the Knights of Soria, who were Pirro Malvezzi, Valerio Legnani, and Vincenzo Magnani appeared on the field armed and dressed in white velvet with gold trim, flanked by pages on horseback, and a parade of trumpeters, drummers, and yet more patrons holding their weapons and white wax candles. Last came their Padrini, who were Emilio Malzezzi, Bonifacio Catani, and Antonio Castelli, armed and splendidly dressed for the occasion. On their person they had the shields of virtue; Beauty, Prudence, and Chastity. When they arrived at the designated place of the abbattimenti, they hung the shields high above the heads of the maintainers, so they could only be touched with a lance in the hands of a knight eager to win.
The Knights maintainers took a seat beneath their designated shields, then a curtain fell, revealing a tower, shrouded in thick mist in the middle of the palazzo (Vizzani notes they used gunpowder or bombard dust for this effect). When the fog lifted, it revealed the goddess Constance in the armor of Pallas standing triumphant in the middle of the barriers, with a shield and sword in her hands. She walked over to the tower and rapped on the door with her sword. It burst open with a great thunder! A giant serpent billowing flames slithered through the portal.
It attacked! Brave Constance blocked the inferno with her shield, and buried her blade into the serpents neck. The foul fire bathed beast retreated into the tower, and Constance followed into the smoke filled void.
A drummer stepped in front of the Tower of Lamentations, and started to rap on his drum. The suspense in the crowd steadily built with the long rolling rhythm and the uncertainty of what drama was yet to unfold, then a page ran across from behind the tower and gave the knights of Soria a list of their prospective challengers. Suddenly the goddess reappeared from the base of the tower, in a billow of smoke, accompanied by the Bolognese champions who had chosen to challenge the vaunted knights of Soria, with broken shackles on their hands and feet. These valiant men were Aliprando (Cesare Malvasia) and Teodato (Scipione Castelli), who had been held under enchantment in the tower by the serpent, but were freed by the goddess.
Constance told them in the tower about the challenge leveled by the knights of Soria, and they were in no way prepared to relent such audacious claims. They issued their own challenge to the knights, asking them to fight them on foot, since they’d been imprisoned and didn’t have time to procure horses. The knights of Soria accepted, and at this Aliprando and Teodato returned to the tower of lamentations. The drummer stepped forward, and went to task. But not long after he’d set the cadence, Aliprando and Teodato emerged, dawned in gilded white surcoats encrusted in pearls and jewels, with pikes on their shoulders. They were followed by their Padrini, drummers, pages, and a large number of men carrying white candles. After placing his helmet upon his head, Aliprando was the first to step forward, he tapped the shield of Beauty. He carried out his passage of arms, one pass with the pike, one with the mace, and five with the estoc, then Teodato stepped forward and he too did the same.
Upon the completion of the gallant passages by Teodato and Aliprando, our brave heroes retired, and a new challenger entered the barrier. Lorenzo Gozzadini arrived, armed in golden armor with a black velvet lined in gold trim. He carried a pike on his shoulder, and had his stocco at his side, in front of him was a page who carried his standard and his shield, while behind him were a guard of armed men, with jupons and sleeves of mail, each carrying large white wax candles. He made a show of himself before the crowd, then went to tap a shield of the maintainers, and took his place in the barriers. His bout went a bit differently, three blows with the pike, five with the stocco, and one with the mace, making a valiant account of his prowess, and command of the knightly arts.
Now, Lorenzo Malvezzi entered the field on a two wheeled chariot with dolphins shooting water out of their blowholes on either side of the carriage, pulled by four gesso horses (called Marian Horses) breathing fire from their nostrils. Before him sat a woman dressed in a warriors uniform, holding a two handed sword, and a dwarf who had charge of his mittens and his pike in lieu of a Padrino. The chariot was flanked by pages in brown surcoats, and spirits dancing about with fire spewing clubs in their hands. They circled around the barriers two or three times, then stopped in the middle of the field. Lorenzo stepped down from the cart, donned his helmet, and touched one of the shields above the Maintainers.
After a wild fight, with his ethereal companions dancing licentious about the field, he successfully defended the virtue of his paragon of chastity.
As Lorenzo departed, the field filled with the acrid bombard fog. Lelia appeared through the mist on a richly decorated palfrey. She was surrounded by grooms bedecked in house livery. Behind Lelia was the Necromancer, masked, in a tall hat, draped in a long ancient blue velvet coat, with gold fringes, and a crimson satin skirt. He was riding a large wolf that stalked about the barrier fence. Turning to the old man, Lelia showed him that this was the place of the abbattimento where he’d promised to summon her dear Ferrante. The Necromancer bowed, and dismounted his beast. He produced a book from a satchel bound to his waist, then held the book aloft. He suddenly came under attack from some unseen danger, and started warding off his attackers with strange signs formed by his long aged fingers.
Demons.
Looking upward from one then to another, he mumbled some words of incantation and produced a gnarled wood wand. In a whirlwind of motion, he flicked and flittered his spindly instrument. Thunder—a blinding flash of light. Smoke filled the field, and a great mountain appeared in the center of the pallada—to the awe of the crowd.
The Necromancer shouted in frustration, he couldn’t understand why his spell hadn’t worked, Ferrante should be standing there, but he was nowhere in sight. He returned to his incantations, demanding that the infernal spirits obey him, and do his bidding—another thunderclap cut the air, followed by a bolt of lightning. A monstrous Demon appeared spewing wicked flames. He struck the mountain with his grotesque fists, and fire burst forth from the mountain—Thunder—a loud bang—the mountain split open, and Ferrante (Hettore Ghisilieri) was there, kitted in brilliant armor covered in crimson velvet with silver stars, a sallet on his head with huge majestic plumes of white and red ostrich feathers draping behind him, and a shield of mirrors reflecting beams of pure light through the smoky veil.
Ferrante spurred his mount and dashed off at a canter. He cut a tight turn, then rounded back to the center, pawing and prancing on his magnificent steed. His elegant display showed both the skill of the rider and his charge. Turning about the pallada one last time, making graceful remittances and corbetts, he payed reverence to his lovely lady wife, Lelia. Ferrante then, his eyes shrouded beneath the shadow of his visor looked away from his greatest treasure on earth, and locked eyes on the knights of Soria.
The magnanimous Ferrante completed all of his passes; one with the lance, one with the mace, and five with stocco, on horseback—proving a level of proficiency and prowess surpassing his peers. As he returned to his dear Lelia, trumpets cut though the raucous cheers of the crowd.
The last champion had arrived.
Menalippe (Pirro Castelli) entered the field. Armed in ancient Amazonian armor, gilt and adorned with noble vestments, a moon shaped shield, and a scimitar tucked in his belt. Castelli’s skill with a sword and graceful ability to shape his body in various guards made a striking display. In his train were a two trumpeters dressed in white satin, followed by retinue of knights in Amazonian garb, riding white horses. These exotic warriors wore clothes patterned in a vibrant multicolor array, with foot-soldier’s helmets topped by branches of golden laurels on the crest, over long hair which draped to their shoulders, buckskin shoes about their feet, and scimitars at their sides. Menalippe’s Padrino was last, holding his mighty stocco, surrounded by pages carrying white candles.
Menalippe donned his helmet, and rode to challenge the knights Maintainers. His challenger stepped into the ring, and then with all custom and prowess, Minalippe carried out a brilliant passage of arms, defeating his opponent with dignity, honor, and grace. It was a resounding account, not just by Pirro Castelli, our Minalippe, declares Vizzani, but all of the knights who took part in this marvelous display; Pirro Malvezzi, Lorenzo Gozzadini, Lorenzo Malvezzi, Cesare Malvasia, Scipione Castelli, Valerio Legnani, Hettore Ghisilieri and Vincenzo Magnani.
“And this, as a sample of the magnanimity that the Bolognese used to show even in matters of jest, is enough for now. Since to anyone, who would think of writing all the noble tournaments, the daring jousts, the delightful festivals, and the ingenious games, which with beautiful inventions, for various occasions, and at different times, were created by the Knights of the Viola, later called the Knights Desti, and those similarly, which however are done by modern knights in Bologna, there would be no lack of material for writing many books full of beautiful and fabulous inventions!”
—Pompeo Vizzani
For shits-and-giggles, if you want to read through the original here is my transcription of Vizzani’s account of the event! Enjoy!
Vizzani Transcritpion
Come si vede nel carovale del Sessantadue, nel quale oltre a varie giostre fatte alla Quintana, se ne fece correndo all incotro la Domenica di carnovale una bellisima, il pregio della quale fu un ricco palio di velluto cremesino, e una spada, con pugnale, e centura dorata, che furono proposti da gli Antiani per havergli a donare a chi piu valorosamente si portasse ne giorno della giostra, nel quale essendo i cavallieri comparsi in campo con ordine bellisimo armati, e adornati nobilmente con varie imprese, e liuree, tutti si portarono egregiamente, e alla fine con grande appluso del popolo resto vincitore Pirro Malvezzi, e havuto in premio il palio, fu da tutti i gentil'huomini accompagnato fine a casa, con strepito di trombe, tamburi, e voci di tutto il popolo. La spada fu data ad Hercole Malvezzi,. Il giorno sequente poi, che fu il Lunedi di carnovale, a tre hore di notte nel cortile del Palazzo maggiore coperto di panni, con le facciate, e le sinestre tutto intorno cinto di plachi, e soprapalchi, ne i quali stavano le gentildonne, i gentilhuomini, e altri per veder la sesta, si comincio un torneamento, il soggetto del quale fu che Clitomaco, Telefane, e Dimarco Cavalieri di Soria giunti poco dianzi a Bologna, dove havevano inteso trovarsi molti cavallieri valotosi; si offerivano di sostener con l'armi cobattendo a piedi, e a cavallo contra ciascuno cavalliero Bolognese, che tre sorelle Callianira, Sofonisba, e Annotea di Dammasco loro Signore vincevano nell'esser belle, saggie, e cortesi, tutte l'altre donne del mondo: e per tal essetto si offerivano essi di comparire in campo alli nove di Febraro nel cortile del publico palazzo, dove sarebbono assissi tre scudi denotanti le tre qualita delle loro Signore, e iui starebbono apparecchiati per opporsi a qualunque cavaliero, che cosi a cavallo, come a piedi fosse ardito di toccar quei scu di con pensieto di voler dire il contrario: intendendo che l'abbattiento a cavallo si havesse a fare armato alla leggiera, con un colpo di lancia, uno di mazza, e cinque di stocco. Et a questro fine essi tre cavallieri pulicarono un cartello, che manifestava diffusamente la loro intentione, e la disfida, sotto la data de' vintiotto di Gennaro; a che non fu per allhora risposto da veruno: ma furono poi fra pochi di pulicati alcuni manifesti, uno de' quali indirizzaro alle gentildone, fu dato fuora sotto nome di Lelia Bolognese, la quale mostrava; per haver letto il cartello de' tre Cavalieri di Soria; di dolersi, ch'essendo ito in paesi lontani per far prova del suo valore, non si trovasse presente il Cavalier Ferrando suo inamorato, del quale non dubitava, che, quando havesse inteso la proposta de tre cavalieri, egli non hanesse sostenuto che la sua donna, per belezza, per virtu, e per cortesia, era degna d'esser posta al paro delle loro Signore: e che non sapendo ella dove il suo Ferrando si fosse, era uscita fuori di Bologna per zelo dell'honore di tutte l'altre donne, e arrivata in paesi strani, haveva trovato un Negromante, che gli haveva dato speranza d'haversi a trovar con lei nel di della giornata in Bologna, nel luogo dove si preparava l'abbattimento; e che farebbe in un tratto, per forza d'incanti comparire il Cavalier Ferrando armato a cavallo per combattare co i cavalieri di Soria, e per difendere la ragione della sua donna. Un'altro manifesto ancora fu dato fuori sotto nome di Menalippe Amazona, la quale diceva, che havendo inteso Martesia Regina delle Amazoni la proposta de tre cavallieri di Soria, gli era rincresciuto, che sotto pretesto di voler honorare le lor donne, havessero prefunto di maculare la riputatione di tutte l'altre; e pero haveva dato il carico ad essa Menalippe d'andare a trovargli, e comattendo sostenere, che anco nell'altre par ti del mondo si trovavano donne di belta , di cortesia, a di valore ugvali alle Signore loro; e percio sarebbe comparsa in campo al tempo destinato, per far prova del suo valore. Giunta poi l'hora dell' abbatimento i Mantenitori, quali erano Pirro Malvezzi, Valerio Legnani, e Vicenzo Magnani, comparvero in campo armati, e vestiti di velluto bianco, e oro, co' paggi sopra i cavalli, che havevano a servire per gli abbattimenti, e tutti gli altri a piedi, con trombe tamburi haste, armi, e torcie di cera bianca infinite; e i Padrini loro, i quali erano Emilio Malvezzi, Bonifacio Catani, e Antonio Castelli ammuntati, e vestiti splendidamente caminavano appresso a gli Mantenitori, e si faccevano portare innanzi tre scudi, che per l'imprese, che dentro dipinte ui erano, dinotavano l'uno la Bellezza, l'altro la Prudenza, e il terzo la Castita delle loro donne. Questi tre scudi sopra ciascuno de i Mantenitori furono appesi in alto tanto, che ageuolmente potevano vedersi, e toccare ancora con l'hasta da ciascun cavaliero bramoso di comattere. Appena si erano assisi sopra tre honorate seggie poste sotto gli scudi loro, aspettando d'essere chiamati a comattere i tre Cavalieri Mantenitori, cadendo una cortina, si scoperse una Torre, fuori della quale da polvere di bombarda esshalo caliginoso, e spesso funo, in forma d'una folta nuvola, la quale quando fu dissipata lascio in mezo dello steccato la Dea della Costanza vestita nell'havito, che si sigura la Dea Pallade, con l'elmo, con l'hasta, e con loscudo, nel quale p dichiarare, ch'ella era Dea della Costanza, e non Pallade, haveva per impresa un'immovile scoglio posto in mezo all'onde del mare. Questa poiche alquanto hebbe mirato intorno, s'invio pian piano verso la torre, percontendo con l'hasta nella porta, che in un tratto con gran tuono s'aperse, e n'ufici un'horribile serpente, che spirava fuoco in gran copia contra la Dea, la quale comattendo, e difendendosi feri nel collo il serpente, che comincio poi a titirarsi verso la porta della torre, all'entrare dell quale chiundendosi da se stessa, resto chiuso dentro il serpente con la Dea, e poco dipoi ufci fuori un tamburino, il quale porto un cartello a i Mantenitori, e ne diede copia in stampa a i circonstanti, che da quello intersero, come Aliprando, e Teodato Cavallieri Bolognesi liverati teste per virtu della Dea della Costanza dalla torre del pianto, che cosi era chiamata quella Torre, nella quale per alcun tempo erano stati trattenuti co incanto sotto la custodia del serpente ad instanza delle loro crudelisime Signore, che vollero in quella guisa tenergli lontanti dal cospetto loro; havevano in quella guisa tenergli lontanti dal cospetto loro; havevano inteso della stessa Dea cio che i Cavallieri di Soria intendevano di sostenere;a che non volendo essi in veruna maniera consentire, si erano deliberati, comattendo armati a piedi; poiche in cosi poco tempo non havevano potuto provedersi di cavalli; di far conoscere al mondo, che Vrania, e Attenia loro Signore, benche sossero crudeli, erano con tuttocio di bellezza pari a tutte l'altre belle, si come di Costanza essi non cedevano a verun altro Cavalliero. Ritoranto poi il tamburo i Cavallieri uscirono della torre armati con le picche in spalla, con soprevesti bianche riccamate d'oro con perle, e gioie, accompagnati da padrini, e altri gentilhuomini assai, da tamburi, da paggi, e feruitori, con gran copia d'accesi lumi; e havendo con ardita leggiadria passeggiato il capo, si fermarono innanzi alla torre loro, dalla quale partitosi poi Cesare Malvasia, uno de' detti Cavallieri sotto nome d'Aliprando, fu il primo, che fattosi accommodare la celata in testa ando a toccare lo scudo della Belezza; e fece il suo abbatimento: e dopo lui Scipione Castelli sotto nome del Cavallier Teodato fece il medisimo. Finito questo venne in cmapo Lorenzo Gozzadini, che armato di bellisima armatura dorata, con girello di velluto nero riccamato d'oro; portava la picca in spalla, e lo stocco al fianco; innanzi un paggio portava la celata del suo Signore, e lo scudo in bracci; dietro al Cavaliero caminava una guardi d'huomini armati, con giacchi, e maniche di maglia, cia scuno de'quali una gran torcia di cera bianca portava in mano accesa; e cosi accompagnato havendo, a suon di tamburi fatto mostra di se per lo steccato, ando a toccare uno de tre scudi di Mantenitori, e con tre colpi di picca, cinque di stocco, e uno di mazza fini valorasame te la sua battaglia, e lascio libero lo steccato a Lorenzo Malvezzi, che forma d'una valorosa guerriera entro in campo sopra un caarro di due ruote, il quale haveva per isponda dalle bande due delfini che spiravano suoco; e la guerriera sedeva in altro armata, con sopraveste di broccato d'oro, e fottana di seta morella lavorata a scaglie d'oro, haveva in testa una ricca celata a fante a piedi, e le treccie giu per le spalle; Sopra il medesimo carro; ma un poco piu basso; sedeva un'altra donna vestita alla divisa della guerriera, che porrava uno stocco nudo in mano; e questa setvi la guerriera in luogo di Padrino; dianzi a lei sedeva un picciol nano, che teneva la picca, e le manopole; quatro cavalli, che finti di stucco sono detti cavalli mariani, tiravano il carro spirando suoco per lo naso; e erano bar dati di cedado morello. del quale i paggi ancora, che gli stavano sopra erano vestiti; Intorno al carro saltellavano alcuni spiriti infernali con mazze in mano, dalle quali usciva gra copia di fuoco. Giro la guerriera tutto lo steccato, e poi fermatasi in un canto scese dal carro; e sfido i Mantenitori toccando uno de' loro scudi; e fattasi mettere la celata, s'appresento alla battaglia, circondata sempre da suoi spiriti, che facevano molti strani gesti. Comparue poi la gia detta Lelia molto leggiadramente vestita, e vaga nell'aspetto, sopra una bellisima chinea ricamente guarnita : intorno a cui caminavano alcuni staffieri vestiti d'honorata livrea: con lei veniva il Negromantea cavallo d'un grandisimo lupo, e vestito all'antica di velluto azurro, con frangie d'oro, e una sottana di raso cremesino, con maschera, berretta, e capillatura d'huomo vecchio. Entrata la donna con la compagnia, e girato tutto lo steccato, rivoltandosi al vecchio, gli mostro, che quello era il luogo, nel quale esso haveva promesso di far venire Ferrante suo Signore; e il Negromante mostrandosi pronto a compiacerla tosto discese dal suo lupo, e havendo dato di mano ad una tasca, che gli pendeva dalla cintura, e cavatone un libro, fece sembiante di voler scongiurare i Demoni, guardando all'insu hora da una, e hora da un'altra parte, facendo con le mani strani segni, e mormorando parole no intese, e in tanto una bacchetta, ch'egli haveva in mano prese suoco, e fece una bellisima girandola, e diede in quella guisa speranza a gli spettatori d'havere a vedere alcuna maraviglia; e per l'aria s'udi uno spaventoso tuono accompagnato da splendido lamo; e dopo il lampo scese un fulmine, che ando a ferire in quella parte, donde Ferrante venir doveva, e produsse un densissimo fumo, e per mezo il fumo fuori d'una assai picciola usci un grandisimo monte, il quale quando fu cessato il fumo, si offerse a gli occhi de' cironstanti, che quasi non sapevano imaginarsi, onde all'improviso fosse cosi gran machina venuta; e mentre con maraviglia ognuno stava di cio ragionando; il Negromante singendosi adirato; per che Ferrante non compariva; torno di nuovo a suoi sinti incantesmi, mostrando di comandare a gli Spiriti infernali, che tosto dovessero farlo compariere; onde per l'aria s'udi un'altro tuono, e si vide passare un fulmine, dietro a cui volo un finto Demonio, che spirando raggi di fuoco percosse con impito nel monte, che tutto di varie fiamme s'accese, e dopo un terribil tuono, quasi per forza s'aperse, usceondone all'improviso Ferrante armato, tutto ardito, e franco sopra un generoso corsiero. Questi era Hettore Ghisilieri vestito, come anco il cavallo era coperto di velluto cremesino con stelle d'argento, e portava in testa sopra la celata una grandisima pennacchiera maestevolmente fatta di penne di struzzo bianche, e rosse; e una scudo in braccio composto di vari specchi, che per lo lume delle accese siaccole riverberando ne gli occhi abbagliava la vista de' cironstanti. Venne egli fuori con si bella maniera correndo, corbettando, e rimettendo il cavallo, che parve á punto, che fosse ufcito dall caverne del monte, il quale mentre che il cavalliero hor quá, hor lá correndo essercitava il cavallo per lo steccato, disparve senza ve dersi come tra'l caliginoso fumo in maniera che piu non se ne vide vestigio, e esso cavalliero, dopo che voteggiando il cavallo hebbe fatto molte leggiadre rimesse, e gratiose corbette, e fatta riverenza alla sua Lelia, ando a combattere co' Mantenitori, facendo nell'armi a cavalo opere degne del suo vaolore; e poi tiratosi da parte diede luogo, a chi giá con trombe facceva segno d'avicinarsi per entrar per la porta del palazzo nello steccato; e ecco che per ultimo campione entro nel campo la valorosa guerriera Menalippe, che fu Giovan Paolo Castelli vestito in habito d' Amazona all'antica armato di lucide armature fregiate d'oro, con lo scudo fatto a Luna all'usanza delle Amazoni, e ornato di vestimenti cosi vagli, nobili, e regali con tanta maestria, e con si leggiadre foggie, che fu da tutti sommamente lodato. Cavalcavano innanzi due trombettieri uestiti di roso bianco, e dietro al cavaliero vint'altr' Amazonitutte armate con celata da fante á piedi, con un ramo di lauro dorato per cimiero, e i capelli sparsi per la spalle, e havevano le sopravesti di cendado di piu colori, con le scimitarre al fianco, e i coturni a piedi; alcune con la celata da huomo d'arme, e con lo stocco da comattere del Cavaliero in mano, e l'altre con torchi accesi; e tutte a cavallo di cavalli bianchi. Quest'animoso Cavaliero fatta di se mostra per tutto lo steccato, e fattosi accommodare in testa la celata da comattere a cavello, ando a toccare uno la celata da comattere a cavallo, ando a toccare uno de gli scudi, e uscito il Mantenitore devtato, secero l'abbattimento loro á cavallo, portandosi ciascuno da valoroso guerriero; onde cosi gli ultimi, come i primi, che tutti si erano portati egregiamente, furono commendati ugvalmente per generosi, e forsi, con grande applauso de' circonstanti. Et datosi finalmente nelle trombe, e ne i tamburi, ciascuno liero se ne torno alle sue stanze. Et questo, per un saggio della magnanimita, che solevano mostrare i Bolognesi anco nelle cose di burla, basti per addesso; poiche a chi pensasse di scrivere tutti i nobili tornei, l'ardire giostre, le gratiose feste, e gli ingegnosi givochi, che con belle inventioni, per varie occasioni, e indiversi tempi si sono fatti da Cavalieri della Viola, chiamati poi i Cavalieri Desti, e quelli medesimamente, che tuttavia da moderni cavalieri si fanno in Bologna, non mancherebbe materia di scivere molti libri pieni di belle inventioni favolose; le quali, non essendo avenuta in tutto quell'anno altra cosa degna di memoria, potrano, per la sterilita della materia, supplire per questa volta in cambio d'historia.
Works Cited:
Vizzani, Pompeo. Historie di Bologna: I due ultimi libri delle historie della sua patria. Italy, Rossi, 1608. Pg. 54-62.
Swanger, Jherek. The Art of Defense: on Fencing, the Joust, and Battle Formation, by Giovanni dall’Agocchie. Lulu press. Published 5/5/2018.
Montillo, Francesca. Free From the Moral Order: The Origins of Venice Carnival. Orderisda.com. https://orderisda.org/culture/travel/free-from-the-moral-order-the-origins-of-venice-carnival/Venice. Published 01/28/2024. Accessed 01/29/2024.
Delpiano, Roberto. Venice Carnival History. https://italiancarnival.com/php/venice-carnival-history.php. Accessed 01/29/2024.
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Saturnalia". Encyclopedia Britannica, 29 Dec. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Saturnalia-Roman-festival. Accessed 30 January 2024.
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Bacchanalia". Encyclopedia Britannica, 27 Sep. 2011, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bacchanalia. Accessed 30 January 2024.
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Anthesteria". Encyclopedia Britannica, 21 Nov. 2017, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Anthesteria. Accessed 30 January 2024.
Giostra della Quintana. Wikipedia.com. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giostra_della_Quintana. Updated 12/24/2023. Accessed 01/28/2024.
Ulrich II of Aquileia. Wikipedia.com. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulrich_II_of_Aquileia. Upadated 04/10/2021. Accessed 01/29/2024.
Vitale II Michiel. Wikipedia.com. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitale_II_Michiel. Updated 12/26/2023. Accessed 01/29/2024.
The Diet of Roncaglia. Wikipedia.com. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diet_of_Roncaglia. Updated 07/11/2022. Accessed 01/29/2024.
Patriarchate of Aquileia. Wikipedia.com. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarchate_of_Aquileia. Updated 11/12/2023. Accessed 01/29/2024.
Frederick Barbarossa. Wikipedia.com. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Barbarossa. Updated 01/25/2024. Accessed 01/29/2024.
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Bacchanalia". Encyclopedia Britannica, 27 Sep. 2011, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bacchanalia. Accessed 30 January 2024.
Bacchanalia, in Greco-Roman religion, any of the several festivals of Bacchus (Dionysus), the wine god. They probably originated as rites of fertility gods. The most famous of the Greek Dionysia were in Attica and included the Little, or Rustic, Dionysia, characterized by simple, old-fashioned rites; the Lenaea, which included a festal procession and dramatic performances; the Anthesteria, essentially a drinking feast; the City, or Great, Dionysia, accompanied by dramatic performances in the theatre of Dionysus, which was the most famous of all; and the Oschophoria (“Carrying of the Grape Clusters”).
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Anthesteria". Encyclopedia Britannica, 21 Nov. 2017, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Anthesteria. Accessed 30 January 2024.
On the first day (Pithoigia, or “Jar Opening”) libations were offered to Dionysus from the newly opened casks. The second day (Choes, or “Wine Jugs”) was a time of popular merrymaking typified by wine-drinking contests in which even slaves and children participated; but the state performed a secret ceremony in a sanctuary of Dionysus in the Lenaeum, in which the wife of the king archon went through a ceremony of marriage to Dionysus. The fullest description, which omits many details, is found in Apollodorus’s speech “Against Neaera.” On these days, it was believed, the souls of the dead came up from the underworld and walked abroad; people chewed leaves of whitethorn and smeared their doors with tar to protect themselves from evil. The third day (Chytroi, or “Pots”) was a festival of the dead, for which, apparently, pots of seed or bran were offered to the dead.
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Saturnalia". Encyclopedia Britannica, 29 Dec. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Saturnalia-Roman-festival. Accessed 30 January 2024.
Originally celebrated on December 17, Saturnalia was extended first to three and eventually to seven days. The date has been connected with the winter sowing season, which in modern Italy varies from October to January. Remarkably like the Greek Kronia, it was the liveliest festival of the year. All work and business were suspended. Slaves were given temporary freedom to say and do what they liked, and certain moral restrictions were eased. The streets were infected with a Mardi Gras madness; a mock king was chosen (Saturnalicius princeps); the seasonal greeting io Saturnalia was heard everywhere. The closing days of the Saturnalia were known as Sigillaria, because of the custom of making, toward the end of the festival, presents of candles, wax models of fruit, and waxen statuettes which were fashioned by the sigillarii or manufacturers of small figures in wax and other media.
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Bacchanalia". Encyclopedia Britannica, 27 Sep. 2011, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bacchanalia. Accessed 30 January 2024.
Introduced into Rome from lower Italy, the Bacchanalia were at first held in secret, attended by women only, on three days of the year. Later, admission was extended to men, and celebrations took place as often as five times a month. The reputation of these festivals as orgies led in 186 BC to a decree of the Roman Senate that prohibited the Bacchanalia throughout Italy, except in certain special cases.
Montillo, Francesca. Free From the Moral Order: The Origins of Venice Carnival. Orderisda.com. https://orderisda.org/culture/travel/free-from-the-moral-order-the-origins-of-venice-carnival/Venice. Published 01/28/2024. Accessed 01/29/2024.
It appears for the first time in a document by Doge Vitale Falier in 1094 AD, when the idea of public entertainment was first mentioned. Two very ancient traditions were also rooted in the festival: Rome had the Saturnalia, a festival during which the social order was overthrown by its residents.
Montillo, Francesca. Free From the Moral Order: The Origins of Venice Carnival. Orderisda.com. https://orderisda.org/culture/travel/free-from-the-moral-order-the-origins-of-venice-carnival/Venice. Published 01/28/2024. Accessed 01/29/2024.
Venice has celebrated Carnival sporadically since 1162 AD (having just claimed victory over the Patriarch of Aquileia, Venetians took to the streets in celebration).
Frederick Barbarossa. Wikipedia.com. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Barbarossa. Updated 01/25/2024. Accessed 01/29/2024.
He was crowned King of the Romans at Aachen several days later, on 9 March 1152
Frederick Barbarossa. Wikipedia.com. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Barbarossa. Updated 01/25/2024. Accessed 01/29/2024.
He moved on to Pavia, where he according to some historians received the Iron Crown and the title of King of Italy on 24 April in the Basilica of San Michele Maggiore.
Frederick Barbarossa. Wikipedia.com. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Barbarossa. Updated 01/25/2024. Accessed 01/29/2024.
As Frederick approached the gates of Rome, the Pope advanced to meet him. At the royal tent the king received him, and after kissing the pope's feet, Frederick expected to receive the traditional kiss of peace.[30] Frederick had declined to hold the Pope's stirrup while leading him to the tent, however, so Adrian refused to give the kiss until this protocol had been complied with.
Frederick Barbarossa. Wikipedia.com. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Barbarossa. Updated 01/25/2024. Accessed 01/29/2024.
The next day, 18 June 1155, Adrian IV crowned Frederick I Holy Roman Emperor at St Peter's Basilica, amidst the acclamations of the German army.
Frederick Barbarossa. Wikipedia.com. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Barbarossa. Updated 01/25/2024. Accessed 01/29/2024.
The retreat of Frederick in 1155 forced Pope Adrian IV to come to terms with King William I of Sicily, granting to William I territories that Frederick viewed as his dominion.[37] This aggrieved Frederick, and he was further displeased when Papal legates chose to interpret a letter from Adrian to Frederick in a manner that seemed to imply that the imperial crown was a gift from the Papacy and that in fact the Empire itself was a fief of the Papacy.[38] Disgusted with the pope, and still wishing to crush the Normans in the south of Italy, in June 1158, Frederick set out upon his second Italian expedition, accompanied by Henry the Lion and his Saxon troops.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diet_of_Roncaglia
The determination of the respective rights of the parties was left to four jurists from Bologna, the home of the great law school founded in 1088. The lawyers' decision favored the emperor, judging that his rule was by divine right, thus restoring the Imperial rights established since the period of nascent trade under rule of Emperor Otto. The lawyers proceed to define taxes, tolls, and exactions of various kinds to be imposed on trade.
Frederick Barbarossa. Wikipedia.com. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Barbarossa. Updated 01/25/2024. Accessed 01/29/2024.
The death of Pope Adrian IV in 1159 led to the election of two rival popes, Alexander III and the antipope Victor IV, and both sought Frederick's support.[43] Frederick, busy with the siege of Crema, appeared unsupportive of Alexander III, and after the sacking of Crema demanded that Alexander appear before the emperor at Pavia and to accept the imperial decree.
Frederick Barbarossa. Wikipedia.com. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Barbarossa. Updated 01/25/2024. Accessed 01/29/2024.
The political result of the struggle with Pope Alexander was an alliance formed between the Norman state of Sicily and Pope Alexander III against Frederick.
https://en.wikipedia.org/Ulrich%20II%20of%20Aquileia.%20Wikipedia.com.%20https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulrich_II_of_Aquileia.%20Upadated%2004/10/2021.%20Accessed%2001/29/2024.wiki/Ulrich_II_of_Aquileia
In 1155 Pope Adrian IV granted the patriarch of Grado jurisdiction over parts of the coast of Dalmatia, causing renewed tension.[5] Frederick Barbarossa, the Holy Roman Emperor, aimed to bring northern Italy into his domains. Barbarossa entered Italy with his armies in 1154, and in 1161 established control of the mainland around Venice.[5] In 1162, while Venice was involved in a war with Padua and Ferrara, Patriarch Ulrich of Aquileia attacked Grado.
Vitale II Michiel. Wikipedia.com. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitale_II_Michiel. Updated 12/26/2023. Accessed 01/29/2024.
Next, Frederick engaged The Patriarch of Aquileia to attack Grado. This attack also failed, and merely resulted in Grado having to pay an annual tribute to Venice - a dozen pigs annually on the Wednesday before Lent. These pigs were chased around the Piazza on the following day by the people of Venice.
Delpiano, Roberto. Venice Carnival History. https://italiancarnival.com/php/venice-carnival-history.php. Accessed 01/29/2024.
Ulrich II had to pay - to be freed with his soldiers, about 700 men - one bull and twelve pigs, and had to promise (which he certainly did) to do this every year, for the Giovedì Grasso feasting in Venice.
https://italiancarnival.com/php/venice-carnival.php
Some other interpretations place its origins as the name of a common meat-based country feast (carnualia in Latin) or the festival of the Navigium Isidis ("ship of Isis"), where the image of Isis was carried to the seashore to bless the start of sailing season.
Montillo, Francesca. Free From the Moral Order: The Origins of Venice Carnival. Orderisda.com. https://orderisda.org/culture/travel/free-from-the-moral-order-the-origins-of-venice-carnival/Venice. Published 01/28/2024. Accessed 01/29/2024.
Carnival became “official” in 1296 when a mandate by the Senate of the Republic declared the day before the start of Lent a public holiday.
Giostra della Quintana. Wikipedia.com. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giostra_della_Quintana. Updated 12/24/2023. Accessed 01/28/2024.
The definition of Quintana comes from the 5th road of the Roman military camps, where the soldiers were trained in lance fighting. They would run against a dummy-soldier, trying to catch a ring hanging from an arm of the dummy. This is the origin of the tournament's name, but the first definition and documented "Quintana" as a knights' jousting tournament during a festival, dates back to 1448.
Vizzani, Pompeo. Historie di Bologna: I due ultimi libri delle historie della sua patria. Italy, Rossi, 1608. Pg. 54.
Come si vede nel carovale del Sessantadue, nel quale oltre a varie giostre fatte alla Quintana, se ne fece correndo all incotro la Domenica di carnovale una bellisima, il pregio della quale fu un ricco palio di velluto cremesino, e una spada, con pugnale, e centura dorata, che furono proposti da gli Antiani per havergli a donare a chi piu valorosamente si portasse ne giorno della giostra